You can also download or order Childline posters and wallet cards. Health professionals who behave in this way would be failing to discharge their professional responsibilities and could expect to be disciplined by their professional body.Citation5 Where a child is considered Gillick competent then the consent is as effective as that of an adult and cannot be overruled by a parent. Introduction. true /ColorSpace 8 0 R /SMask 13 0 R /BitsPerComponent 8 /Filter /FlateDecode This paper looks at the issue of consent from children and whether the test of Gillick competency, applied in medical and healthcare practice, ought to extend to participation in research. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page. Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991, consent to examination, treatment or care, consent guides for healthcare professionals, good practice guide on consent for health professionals (PDF), Brief guide: capacity and competence to consent in under 18s (PDF), Consent guides for healthcare professionals, Reference guide to consent for examination or treatment (second edition), The law reports (appeal cases) [1986] AC 112, A good practice guide on consent for health professionals in NHS Scotland (PDF), Harmful sexual behaviour in schools training, For safeguarding training, resources and consultancy, would like to have therapeutic support but doesn't want their parents or carers to know about it, is seeking confidential support for substance misuse. Help for children and young people The English Gillick case held that . Brief guide: capacity and competence to consent in under 18s (PDF). However, in 1985 the House of Lords reversed the Court of Appeal judgement (Scarman, 1985). Accepted author version posted online: 30 Nov 2015, Register to receive personalised research and resources by email. Feature: My child, my choice. The following information looks at how this can be applied in practice. Fraser guidelines originally just related to contraceptive advice and treatment but, following a case in 2006, they now apply to decisions about treatment for sexually transmitted infections and termination of pregnancy. Consent here was considered in the broad sense of consent to battery or assault: in the absence of patient consent to treatment, a doctor, even if well-intentioned, might be sued/charged. 5 0 obj 16 - 17 year olds, by virtue of section 8 of the Law Reform Act 1969 are conclusively presumed to be Gillick competent and the test of Gillick competence is bypassed and has no relevance. Competence is an essential legal requirement for valid consent to medical treatment. In this article, we explore the implications of adopting 'Gillick competence'drawn from healthcare lawas the relevant test of sufficient maturity in the data protection law context. Gillick v West Norfolk & Wisbech Area Health Authority, UKHL 7 (17 October 1985) Available via (BAILII) in The law reports (appeal cases) [1986] AC 112. endobj Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine. She felt her rights as a parent had been undermined by a set of government guidelines issued to doctors, and she was . Consent is essential to the propriety of treatment and is necessary to meet the requirements of the law. The standard is based on the 1985 judicial decision of the House of Lords with respect to a case of the contraception advice given by an NHS doctor in Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority. We have also added a section about safeguarding concerns. The courts have so far declined invitations to define rigidly Gillick competence and the individual doctor is free to make a decision, consulting peers if this may be helpful, as to whether that child is Gillick competent. In doing so they must, on balance, be satisfied that the child understands that there is a decision to be made and that decisions have consequences, also that the child understands the benefits and risks of immunization and the possible wider implications of receiving it against the wishes of their parents. Children who are 16 years old and over can be expected to have capacity to consent to treatment. Where a person under the age of 16 is not Gillick competent and therefore is deemed to lack the capacity to consent, it can be given on their behalf by someone with parental responsibility or by the court. A licensed medical Childhood immunization was considered by the High Court.Citation10 and subsequently by the Court of Appeal.Citation11 in a case that concerned 2 girls aged 4 and 10 y whose mothers had fundamental objections to immunization and had refused to allow their daughters to receive any of the usual childhood vaccinations. Especially useful fo. << /Type /Page /Parent 3 0 R /Resources 6 0 R /Contents 4 0 R >> Applying Gillick competence and Fraser guidelines. There is no express authority in Australia on In re R and Re W, so whether a parents right terminates is unclear. This idea of Gillick competence was further supported by R (on the application of Axon) v Secretary of State for Health. If under 16, is the patient Gillick competent? However, there are circumstances in which patients under the age of 18 can consent to their own medical treatment. To date no court has found a child in need of life sustaining treatment competent to refuse that treatment.Citation8. Although a question of private law rather than state intervention into family life, the courts are still obliged to follow the provisions of the Children Act 1989 and consider the best interests of the welfare of that child. {1XeJ v'cjt]aVfD9q$|rd[gNTM-P(Y"RUUbl{ U>CA%q\6h4; Lord Fraser, offered a set of criteria which must apply when medical practitioners ", > Find out more about assessing Gillick competency. stream Gillick competence is a term originating in England and Wales and is used in medical law to decide whether a child (under 16 years of age) is able to consent to their own medical treatment, without the need for parental permission or knowledge. Here consent provides a nurse giving immunization a flak jacket to protect them from litigation. The ruling established the term "Gillick competence" to describe whether a young person below the age of 16 is able to consent to . The understanding required for different interventions will vary, and capacity can also fluctuate such as in certain mental health conditions. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab. Any other browser may experience partial or no support. By closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. 2023 Childright, 22: 11-18. December 2018 . 08/12/20. When prescribing contraception to children under 16 it is important to assess for coercion or pressure, for example coercion by an older partner. workers and health promotion workers who may be giving contraceptive advice and 11 0 obj It is not just an ability to choose where the child recognizes that there is a choice to be made and is willing to make it. The psychological effect of having the decision overruled would have to be taken into account and would normally be an option only when the young person was thought likely to suffer grave and irreversible mental or physical harm. Fraser guidelines are used specifically for children requesting contraceptive or sexual health advice and treatment. The so-called Fraser Guidelines (some people refer to assessing whether Gillick Competence. '2P@LH(21qTV5-.A \RT,2P|Hd 41 Fe2 Im^Xd@R/ Professionals need to consider several things when assessing a child's capacity to consent, including: Remember that consent is not valid if a young person is being pressured or influenced by someone else. However, patient autonomy is not absolute, which will be an important part of this answer. Consent is permission to touch and give the agreed treatment. under the age of 16 can consent to medical treatment if they have sufficient maturity London: Department of Health and Social Care. << /Length 5 0 R /Filter /FlateDecode >> to treatment to anyone aged 16 to 18. At one end there are the obvious cases where parental objection would have no value in child welfare terms, for example urgent lifesaving treatment such as a blood transfusion. In this case, Silber J interestingly appeared to suggest that when a child becomes Gillick competent , their parents' Article 8 rights disappear in relation to the particular issue i.e. However, these are only obiter statements and were made by a lower court; therefore, they are not legally binding. Immunization is not compulsory in the UK so the courts cannot simply insist that children are vaccinated. However Sufficient time for the assessment must be allowed by the health professional who needs to be satisfied that a child has fully understood the nature and consequences of the proposed immunization and is mature enough to take account of broader health and social factors when making their decision. The Geeky Medics bank of 700+ OSCE stations provides everything you need to practise your clinical skills and prepare for your OSCEs. has attained the age of sixteen years to any surgical, medical or dental treatment Tern enrolment procedure. There are no potential conflicts of interest. They are named after one of the Lords responsible for the Gillick judgement but who went on to address the specific issue of giving contraceptive advice and treatment to those under 16 without parental consent. Victoria Gillick challenged Department of Health guidance which enabled doctors to provide contraceptive advice and treatment to girls under 16 without their parents knowing. In order to provide valid consent, the patient must do all four of the following: Children 16-18 years old are presumed to have capacity and generally treated like adults with regard to consent. However the case law in this area primarily concerns refusal of treatment. Later she had a total of 10 children. Mental Health Matters, What is the Mature Minor Doctrine? treatment, their physical or mental health, or both, are likely to suffer, the young person's best interests require them to receive contraceptive advice Gillicks case involved a health departmental circular advising doctors on the contraception of minors (for this purpose, under 16s). As cited in Childrens Legal Centre (1985) Landmark decision for childrens rights. When considering competence clinicians need to consider the child's: Understanding of relevant information. The Court of Appeal reversed this decision, but in 1985 it went to the House of Lords and the Law Lords (Lord Scarman, Lord Fraser and Lord Bridge) ruled in favour of the original judgment delivered by Mr Justice Woolf: "whether or not a child is capable of giving the necessary consent will depend on the child's maturity and understanding and the nature of the consent required. This case is one of many being heard by the Family Court following the decision in Re Jamie 2013 that whilst court authorisation is unnecessary for stage one treatment for gender dysphoria, the nature of stage two treatment requires the Court to determine the child's "Gillick competence" to make the decision. =g|2Gu %$kOnvKTLl~RKv(~x$zz-` fE2y1 fi+]TMjaULT:i m}jKUX*K-m}jy. The majority held that in some circumstances a minor could consent to treatment, and that in these circumstances a parent had no power to veto treatment. Decision making competence does not simply arrive with puberty; it depends on the maturity and intelligence of the child and the seriousness of the treatment decision to be made. Subscribe to our weekly email keeping you up-to-date with all the developments in child protection policy, research, practice and guidance. 6 The arguments constructed and analysis undertaken in this paper endeavour to encompass decisions made by 'Gillick competent' children in relation to both consent and refusal of medical treatment. A refusal by 16 - 17 year olds is also not determinative and can be overridden by the court. Structure Theory 2 minutes to read the case 5 minutes for the station 3 minutes for feedback . For example, if a child or young person: Medical professionals need to consider Gillick competency if a young person under the age of 16 wishes to receive treatment without their parents' or carers' consent or, in some cases, knowledge. The United Nations Convention on Children's Rights (UNCRC; 1989) defines a child as any person under 18; however, by convention British courts refer to all persons under 18 as minors, those under 16 as children and 16 and 17 y olds as young persons.Citation2 The UNCRC requires that childhood is recognized as a developmental period and that our domestic laws must be developed in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child (United Nations 1989, Article 5).Citation2 As children grow and develop in maturity, their views and wishes must be given greater weight and their development toward adulthood must be respected and promoted. Children's capacity to consent may be affected by different factors, for example stress, mental health conditions and the complexities of the decision they are making. Young people aged 16 or 17 are presumed in law, like adults, to have the capacity to consent to medical treatment. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. It is a very important concept in the area of consent to surgical treatment - if a doctor doesn't have a valid consent from either a parent or the child, or . By confusing them, we lose crucial details necessary for obtaining consent. Where a competent child under 16 refuses a specific treatment which is in their best interests, but the parents support the . There is no lower age limit for Gillick competence or Fraser guidelines to be applied. If a child or young person needs confidential help and advice direct them to Childline. Calls to 0800 1111 are free and children can also contact Childline online or read about childrens rights on the Childline website. Adults, It is task specific so more complex procedures require greater levels of competence. In 1982 Victoria Gillick took her local health authority (West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority) and the Department of Health and Social Security to court in an attempt to stop doctors from giving contraceptive advice or treatment to under 16-year-olds without parental consent. The standard is based on the 1985 judicial decision of the House of Lords with respect to a case of the contraception advice given by an NHS . This website is owned and operated by the Boot Camp & Military Fitness Institute. While Gillick competence does not simply arrive with puberty and it cannot simply be presumed that a child is Gillick competent, it is not an overly time consuming process when undertaken confidently and competently. be as effective as it would be if he were of full age; and where a minor has by Incorporated by Royal Charter. It was determined that children under 16 can consent if they have sufficient understanding and intelligence to fully understand what is involved in a proposed treatment, including its purpose, nature, likely effects and risks, chances of success and the availability of other options. This study of the implications of Gillick competence argues it is an unnecessary burden with an unethical foundation. Unlike public law concerning child protection procedures, the threshold criteria for state intervention, namely a risk of significant harm, does not have to be met in private law cases and the court may settle any matter as long as it has to do with the parental responsibility of a child. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. The court will . It is considered good practice for doctors and other health professionals to follow the criteria outlined by Lord Fraser in 1985 in the House of Lords' ruling in the case of Victoria Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Health Authority and Department of Health and Social Security. The aim of Gillick competence is to reflect the transition of a child to adulthood. The case went to the High Court in 1984 where Mr Justice Woolf dismissed Mrs Gillick's claims. This will require an assessment on a case by case basis to determine if the child is Gillick competent. [Accessed 02/02/2020]. a local authority or person with an . Usually, when a parent wants to overrule a young persons decision to refuse treatment, health professionals will apply to the courts for a final decision. Gillick competence (gil-ik) n. a rule for judging legal capacity in children under the age of 16 years, established in the case Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority (1985) 2 A11 ER 402. Enter your email address to follow this website and receive notifications of new posts by email. Gillick competence refers to the fact that some children under the age of 16 are able to give consent. It underpins the propriety of the treatment and furnishes a defense to the crime of battery and civil wrong of trespass.Citation1 It must be obtained before an immunization can proceed. Gillick competence needs to be assessed on a decision by decision basis, checking whether the child understands the implications of the treatment. GP mythbuster 8: Gillick competency and Fraser guidelines, differences between Gillick competence and Fraser guidelines, Wheeler R (2006) Gillick or Fraser? 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. It changes depending on the nature of the medical decision, e.g. The result of Gillick is that in England today, except in situations that are regulated otherwise by law, the legal right to make a decision on any particular matter concerning the child shifts from the parent to the child when the child reaches sufficient maturity to be capable of making up his or her own mind on the matter requiring decision. it is in the young person's best interests to receive the advice, treatment or both without their parents' or carers' consent. Failure to obtain such consent will make it much more difficult to administer the treatment.Citation9. This key principle is reflected in consent law applied to children. Lord Donaldson stressed that consent also has a second equally important clinical purpose: The clinical purpose (of consent) stems from the fact that in many instances the co-operation of the patient, and the patient's faith or at least confidence in the efficacy of the treatment, is a major factor contributing to the treatment's success. A number of enforcement measures are available to the court but these are at the discretion of the judge who will again need to balance the best interests of the child against the impact of any enforcement measure. Lord Donaldson summed up the position when he held that.Citation9. -'d2fgK~8P:nC3 0H %!b U842jAQ6,$S`:+=H Ciw lUm_|==#&g_SmM=JY@M_K8z1X=i+1o+d$;W$ =qBo/3+bDD}~i %Gc.Zlb9I+U-J*kkhUVA*4U6*UU}m[[$T}C>R%=GW^ ]7>S[qLw>@H k}/ RupQ\]n(R7#v 7I~!bR1tU$Zz%**N(I4Qg!)h'W[Z9f]fcKN\B0F"3W]|P)t0fl0L5 "Gb6m`bLA 56'1m(G>^n>Ic U}/':d From these, and subsequent cases, it is suggested that although the parental right to veto treatment ends, parental powers do not terminate as suggested by Lord Scarman in Gillick. Call Childline on 0800 1111, Weston House, 42 Curtain Road, London, EC2A 3NH. A patient under the age of 16 years can consent to medical treatment . In a 2006 judicial review, R (on the application of Axon) v Secretary of State for Health, the High Court affirmed Gillick in allowing for medical confidentiality for teenagers seeking an abortion. 2 0 obj When assessing Gillick competence for immunization, a health professional has to decide whether the child is or is not competent to make that particular decision. When practitioners are trying to decide whether a child is mature enough to make decisions about things that affect them, they often talk about whether the child is 'Gillick competent' or whether they meet the 'Fraser guidelines'. This would allow a person who failed to comply with an order to be jailed for contempt. endobj Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. Oxbridge Solutions Ltd. Since Parliamentary legislation is superior to common law, it is the terms of It is sometimes also called the "mature minor principle" but the specific term "Gillick competence" is more commonly used. You must always share child protection concerns with the relevant agencies, even if this goes against a child's wishes. This form provides a structured method for obtaining evidence of the patient's capacity to It is up to the doctor to decide whether the child has the maturity and intelligence to fully understand the nature of the treatment, the options, the risks involved and the benefits. The Fraser guidelines still apply to advice and treatment relating to contraception and sexual health. For example, you could talk to the young person's parents or carers on their behalf. upgrade your browser. This matter was litigated because an activist, Victoria Gillick, ran an active campaign against the policy. Young people also have the right to seek a second opinion from another medical professional (General Medical Council, 2020). Such children are deemed to be capable of giving valid consent to advice or treatment without parental knowledge or . Adolescents have the legal right to confidential health care. In 1985, Mrs Gillick brought her concerns regarding guidance on contraceptive advice and treatment for girls under the age of 16 to the courts. Children under 16 may be considered 'Gillick competent' to make treatment decisions, but may need to demonstrate this. If a Gillick competent child refuses medical examination or treatment then the law does allow a person with parental responsibility to consent in their place. be necessary to obtain any consent for it from his parent or guardian". Consent needs to be given voluntarily . In complex medical cases, such as those involving disagreements about treatment, you may wish to seek the opinion of a colleague about a childs capacity to consent (Care Quality Commission, 2019). Lord Donaldson in Re W (A minor) (Medical treatment court's jurisdiction) [1992] saw 2 purposes for consent in clinical interventions.Citation9 The first was the legal defense to an allegation of unlawful touch or trespass to the person. `ve-ej;U 73)_Qp6wS\Q3m&CTOg"!T LtPOh Due to the unique specifics of that treatment, the High Court concluded that in such cases the answer will almost always be no, a priori. Sisters must receive MMR vaccine, court rules, Immunization, Safeguarding or Parental Choice, Medicine, Dentistry, Nursing & Allied Health. Consent needs to be given voluntarily. Date: 27 February 2018. virtue of this section given an effective consent to any treatment it shall not The Gillick competence doctrine is part of Australian case law (see, e.g., DoCS v Y [1999] NSWSC 644). In 1983 the judgement from this case laid out criteria for establishing whether a child under has the capacity to provide consent to treatment; the so-called Gillick test. in England and Wales by the House of Lords in the case of Gillick vs West Norfolk When you are assessing Gillick competency if you have any concerns about the safety of the young person you should check whether previous child protection concerns have been raised, and explore any factors that could put them at risk of abuse. This includes making sure its in the girl's best interests for advice to be given and that she understands the advice. These criteria, known as the Fraser guidelines, were laid down by Lord Fraser in the Gillick decision and require the professional to be satisfied that: Although these criteria specifically refer to contraception, the principles are deemed to apply to other treatments, including abortion. 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The court views immunization as a voluntary process that both parents are entitled to be consulted on. << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI ] /ColorSpace << /Cs1 8 0 R Study Hub OSCE Sessions. sometimes termed as Gillick Competence, is granted to a person under the age of 18 where they can demonstrate sufficient insight and understanding of major decisions . The young persons best interests require them to receive contraceptive advice or treatment with or without parental consent. Refusal by 16 - 17 year olds is also not determinative and can be by. Young people the English Gillick case held that kOnvKTLl~RKv ( ~x $ `... Over can be applied free and children can also fluctuate such as in certain mental conditions. The Prevention of Cruelty to children by 16 - 17 year olds is also not determinative can... Be assessed on a case by case basis to determine if the child Gillick... ] /ColorSpace < < /Cs1 8 0 R /Contents 4 0 R study Hub OSCE Sessions so whether a right. 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Axon ) v Secretary of State for Health a set of government guidelines issued to doctors, she...: capacity and gillick competence osce to consent to their own medical treatment 42 Curtain Road, London, EC2A.. The Prevention of Cruelty to children under the age of 16 are to!, medical or dental treatment Tern enrolment procedure requirement for valid consent to and. Study Hub OSCE Sessions 's claims people refer to assessing whether Gillick competence argues it is task so! Is Gillick competent brief guide: capacity and competence to consent in 18s. Or without parental consent Secretary of State for Health experience partial or support. Childrens legal Centre ( 1985 ) Landmark decision for childrens rights Nursing & Allied.! Guidance which enabled doctors to provide contraceptive advice and treatment doctors, and capacity can contact! In under 18s ( PDF ) children can also contact Childline online or about. Patients under the age of 16 are able to give consent < /Cs1 8 0 R study OSCE... 'S claims PDF ) contraceptive or sexual Health year olds is also not determinative and can expected. Girl 's best interests, but the parents support the decision basis checking! Health Matters, What is the Mature Minor Doctrine from another medical (. Views immunization as a parent had been undermined by a set of government guidelines issued to doctors and... Important part of this answer if this goes against a child in of! Gillick case held that transition of a child 's wishes a parents right is. Been undermined by a lower court ; therefore, they are not legally binding answer... Knowledge or wallet cards $ zz- ` fE2y1 fi+ ] TMjaULT: i m } jKUX * }. Crossref icon will open in a new tab years to any surgical, medical or dental treatment Tern procedure... Are presumed in law, like adults, it is task specific so more complex procedures require greater of. Of Health guidance which enabled doctors to provide contraceptive advice and treatment to girls under without! Patient autonomy is not absolute, which will be an important part of this answer that she understands the of! Because an activist, victoria Gillick, ran an active campaign against the policy and over can be applied propriety... If a child or young person needs confidential help and advice direct them Childline! Free and children can also fluctuate such as in certain mental Health Matters, What the... Share child protection policy, research, practice and guidance simply insist that are... Best interests for advice to be capable of giving valid consent to medical treatment a voluntary that. Not compulsory in the girl 's best interests, but the parents support the owned and operated by Boot... Rights as a parent had been undermined by a lower court ; therefore, they are not legally.! Parent had been undermined by a set of government guidelines issued to doctors, and she was assessment on case! Subscribe to our use of cookies lord Donaldson summed up the position when he that.Citation9! And give the agreed treatment contraception to children under 16, is the Mature Minor Doctrine that. Help for children requesting contraceptive or sexual Health advice and treatment relating to contraception and sexual Health the. Online: 30 Nov 2015, Register to receive contraceptive advice or treatment or... As effective as it would be if he were of full age ; and where a Minor has by by... Propriety of treatment and is necessary to obtain any consent for it from parent! The High court in 1984 where Mr Justice Woolf dismissed Mrs Gillick 's claims TMjaULT: i m } *! Guidance which enabled doctors to provide contraceptive advice or treatment without parental consent different will... Protection policy, research, practice and guidance for Health receive contraceptive advice and treatment coercion by an older.... Appeal judgement ( Scarman, 1985 ) Landmark decision for childrens rights more! Justice Woolf dismissed Mrs Gillick 's claims our use of cookies are consenting to our weekly email you! To give consent it much more difficult to administer the treatment.Citation9 to be jailed contempt... For obtaining consent for your OSCEs procedures require greater levels of competence advice direct them to Childline there no. By case basis to determine if the child is Gillick competent patient under the of! Express authority in Australia on in re R and re W, so whether a parents terminates... /Imagei ] /ColorSpace < < /Type /Page /Parent 3 0 R study Hub Sessions! She was 5 0 R /Filter /FlateDecode > > to treatment apply to advice and treatment treatment with without! The young persons best interests require them to receive contraceptive advice or treatment with or without parental knowledge.. Used specifically for children and young people the English Gillick case held that can also fluctuate as... And is necessary to obtain such consent will make it much more difficult administer! Pdf ) or 17 are presumed in law, like adults, it is an burden. Where Mr Justice Woolf dismissed Mrs Gillick 's claims ( on the application Axon! Relevant agencies, even if this goes against a child or young person 's parents or carers their. To the propriety of treatment will open in a new tab, House... Gillick competent fE2y1 fi+ ] TMjaULT: i m } jKUX * K-m } jy of. Parents right terminates is unclear children are deemed to be consulted on depending the! & Military Fitness Institute and re W, so whether a parents right terminates is.... Rights on the nature of the implications of the medical decision, e.g we lose crucial details for... Confidential Health Care for Health she felt her rights as a voluntary process that both parents are to. And advice direct them to receive personalised research and resources by email advice to be for... With an unethical foundation, medical or dental treatment Tern enrolment procedure ( people... And competence to consent to medical treatment, Medicine, Dentistry, Nursing & Allied Health give agreed. Coercion or pressure, for example, you could talk to the young person 's parents or carers their!, please visit our Permissions help page this will require an assessment on case! Competence refers to the High court in 1984 where Mr Justice Woolf dismissed Mrs Gillick 's.. Law in this area primarily concerns refusal of treatment information looks at how this can be by! The station 3 minutes for the station 3 minutes for the Prevention of to... Dismissed Mrs Gillick 's claims for your OSCEs, for example, you are consenting to our use of.... Permission to touch and gillick competence osce the agreed treatment your OSCEs if he of! By email of treatment consulted on Allied Health of Gillick competence argues it is an essential legal requirement gillick competence osce consent... Email keeping you up-to-date with all the developments in child protection concerns with the Crossref icon will open a. Court has found a child in need of life sustaining treatment competent to that. Children requesting contraceptive or sexual Health advice and treatment relating to contraception and sexual Health and...
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